The search for a vaccine against AIDS has been long and fruitless ? mostly because the virus mutates so fast.
As is well known, flu vaccines have to be reformulated every year because influenza viruses mutate so steadily. But the human immunodeficiency virus, which causes AIDS, mutates as much in a single day as flu virus does in a year, presenting scientists with an almost insurmountable challenge.
This month, South African researchers announced that they had found a vulnerable spot on the virus?s outer shell that might present a good vaccine target, and that they had also learned, for the first time, at what stage of an infection it develops. They found only two women whose virus had the vulnerability ? and it wasn?t the same virus that first infected them, but a mutant that developed a few months later.
The research, published by Nature Medicine on Oct. 21, was praised as ?very interesting? by several AIDS experts.
?It?s a combination of good science and ?Boy, did we get lucky,??? said Dr. Anthony S. Fauci, director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. ?They had all these blood samples and virus samples.?
The researchers, led by Dr. Salim Abdool Karim, president of South Africa?s Medical Research Council and best known for pioneering work on vaginal microbicides, screened hundreds of blood samples given at regular intervals by 79 women who had been in earlier clinical trials at his Durban clinic and had become infected during the trials.
?What we have that?s unique,? Dr. Karim said, ?is that for the first time, we understand how a person can make broadly neutralizing antibodies.?
The virus?s vulnerable spot ? open to antibody attack ? was created when a sugarlike surface compound called a glycan shifted positions.
Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins produced by the immune system that attach to a virus and block its outer receptors ? sort of the way sweater fuzz attaches to Velcro and renders it unsticky.
There are many strains of H.I.V., and no known antibody incapacitates all of them. But in the last few years, several teams of scientists have isolated about a dozen that each can shut down up to 80 percent of all virus strains. These are said to be ?broadly neutralizing.?
Less than 20 percent of all patients naturally develop such antibodies in their blood, and even those who do aren?t fully protected. One of the women whose blood was crucial to Dr. Karim?s study has died of AIDS-related tuberculosis, and the other is on antiretroviral drugs.
Nonetheless, experts hope it will eventually be possible to manufacture cocktails with large doses of several kinds of antibodies to treat patients ? or even to induce the immune system to make those particular antibodies, which would amount to a vaccine.
But that will take more work, and more luck.
Dr. John P. Moore, an AIDS researcher at Weill Cornell Medical School, called the South African paper ?good solid science, but not enough to know if you have the right target.?
?It?s like looking at a castle and saying: ?I can see a weak point, but I don?t know what kind of battering ram to get,??? he added.
Normally, H.I.V. repels antibodies by mutating its Velcro hooks into different shapes. But some spots on the viral shell don?t change shape easily. Scientists from the National Institute for Communicable Diseases in South Africa and universities in KwaZulu/Natal, Cape Town and North Carolina, as well as from Harvard, screened multiple blood samples looking for previously known antibodies. They found them in the two women, and noted how long into their infections those antibodies appeared ? around six months, it turned out, after their infections were first detected.
Then the scientists looked to see what exactly had changed in the virus circulating in their blood at that time.
They found that a sugarlike glycan had moved from Position 334 to Position 332 on one of the lumpy spikes that stud the virus. That tiny change allows the antibody to attach and alert the body that the whole round virus is an invader, Dr. Karim said.
Antibodies neutralize viruses by blocking their receptors and by attracting white blood cells that will engulf the virus.
Most of the work was done by South Africans and paid for by the South African government, Dr. Karim said proudly, although additional money came from the United States National Institutes of Health and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
Dr. Karim, who also teaches at Columbia University in New York, particularly praised one local researcher, Penny L. Moore of the National Health Laboratory Service in Johannesburg.
?She?s one of our up-and-coming stars,? he said. ?Old fogies like myself are quickly becoming redundant.?
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I have been to Raleigh thrice before, and each and every time I have tried desperately to go to the Duke Lemur Center. Each and every time, I have failed. Friends and colleagues would regale me with furry tales (we all know what you did, Ed Yong) while I jealously listened, trying and failing to imagine what they experienced. No photo or video was enough?I knew that, like with most good things in life, I simply had to be there. So when I hopped on the tour bus on a cold, wet Friday morning, it didn?t matter that it had been more than 30 hours since I?d slept in a bed. I was ready for lemurs.
Chris? passion for these quirky relatives of ours is instantly evident. The tall, lanky blonde with just enough of a southern accent to hint at his Tennesseean roots couldn?t help but spend the entire bus ride gushing over the animals he?s been helping the Center take care of for the past three years. ?Lemurs are entrancing. They have these big, expressive eyes that pull you in.? But to Chris, what makes lemurs even more bewitching is that they have so many human features, too. ?They have this sort of basal mammal quality that makes them absolutely adorable? [but] they have hands, feet, fingerprints, and complex social behaviors just like we do.? 
Once inside, I found myself face to face with more lemurs than I could count. There were Coquerel sifakas, blue-eyed black lemurs, red ruffed lemurs, ring tailed lemurs, black and white ruffed lemurs, mongoose lemurs, bamboo lemurs ? the list goes on and on! I was introduced to many lemurs, and yet they were only a small portion of the animals on site, as many were free ranging in the forests around us. As we walked though, Chris explained little details about their unique biology, like how blue-eyed black lemurs are one of a very small number of primates (including us) to possess blue eyes, or how Coquerel sifakas can jump 30 feet in a single leap, though they seem to prefer a strange sidewards shuffle when moving around on the ground.
As much as lemurs need us, we need them, too. Lemurs represent one of the earliest lineages of primates, splitting from our ancestors some 60 million years ago. They are a unique glimpse at our own evolutionary history, and provide insights into how we developed into the super-smart primates we are today. Not only are they our relatives, they represent one of the most impressive adaptive radiations on Earth. Some twenty million years ago, a handful of lemur ancestors arrived on the shored of Madagascar by hitching a ride on floating debris. They then diversified to fill just about every niche the island had to offer. From the finger-sized mouse lemurs to the dog-sized Aye-Aye, lemurs dominated the forests of Madagascar for millions of years, until their bigger-brained relatives arrived on more well-constructed rafts and began clear cutting the only home the lemurs had ever known. 
Posted by etool on Oct 28 2012. Filed under Arimaha Qoyska. You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0. You can leave a response or trackback to this entry
Ingredients: 2 cups pumpkin seeds (roasted & salted); 8 tablespoons extra virgin olive oil; 1/2 cup water; 5 Tbsp fresh lemon juice; 3 cloves of garlic; 2 cups roughly chopped fresh cilantro, 2 lbs of whole grain pasta.
?Step 2: Add water and the rest of the olive oil to the coarse paste, while the food processor is on high. The paste should transform into a thick sauce.?
Step 3: Place pesto in bowl and chill until ready to use.?
Step 4:?Prepare whole wheat pasta and strain.?
My Challenge for you this Halloween season is look beyond the candy and find other fun season foods to use to celebrate with your friends and family! Have a Spook-Tacular Halloween!?